Cultural moderation in second language Chinese learning
Enjoyment and willingness to communicate among international students in the target language environment
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.32674/9y00wf80Keywords:
L2 Chinese learning, willingness to communicate, enjoyment, cultural background, international students, higher education, ChinaAbstract
How does cultural background moderate the relationship between enjoyment and willingness to communicate in second language (L2) Chinese learning? This study addresses this question through an empirical investigation involving 457 international L2 Chinese learners in Shandong Province, China. The participants completed a paper-based questionnaire. Structural equation modeling (SEM) and moderation analysis were subsequently performed with the statistical software packages SPSS 26.0 and AMOS 26.0. The findings revealed significant positive predictive relationships between enjoyment and WTC both inside and outside the classroom, as well as between willingness to communicate (WTC) inside and outside the classroom. Moreover, cultural background (Asian vs. non-Asian) significantly moderated the “enjoyment—WTC” relationship outside the classroom and the pathways linking enjoyment, WTC inside, and WTC outside. The findings from this study reinforce the essential role of cultural background in L2 learning environments, offering practical recommendations for refining Chinese pedagogy and strengthening intercultural engagement in second language education.
References
Bensalem, E., Thompson, A. S., & Alenazi, F. (2023). The role of grit and enjoyment in EFL learners’ willingness to communicate in Saudi Arabia and Morocco: A cross-cultural study. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2023.2200750. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2023.2200750
Botes, E. L., Dewaele, J. M., & Greiff, S. (2020). The power to improve: Effects of multilingualism and perceived proficiency on enjoyment and anxiety in foreign language learning. European Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(2), 279-306. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1515/eujal-2020-0003
Cao, Y. K., & Wei, W. (2019). Willingness to communicate from an English as an international language perspective: The case of Macau. System, 87, 102149. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.102149
Clément, R., Baker, S. C., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2003). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The effects of context, norms, and vitality. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 22(2), 190–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X03022002003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X03022002003
Dewaele, J.-M., & Dewaele, L. (2018). Learner-internal and learner-external predictors of willingness to communicate in the FL classroom. Journal of the European Second Language Association, 2(1), 24. https://doi.org/10.22599/jesla.37. DOI: https://doi.org/10.22599/jesla.37
Dewaele, J.-M., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2014). The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching, 4(2), 237–274. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.5
Dewaele, J. M., & MacIntyre, P. D. (2016). Foreign language enjoyment and foreign language classroom anxiety: The right and left feet of the language learner. Positive psychology in SLA, 215(236), 9781783095360-010. DOI: https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783095360-010
Du, S. C. (2022). A study on the enjoyment of Chinese language learning of international students in Hainan, China (Master’s thesis, Hainan Normal University). China National Knowledge Infrastructure. https://link.cnki.net/doi/10.27719/d.cnki.ghnsf.2022.000392doi:10.27719/d.cnki.ghnsf.2022.000392.
Fathi, J., & Mohammaddokht, F. (2021). Foreign language enjoyment and anxiety as the correlates of the ideal L2 self in the English as a foreign language context. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 790648. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.790648
Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden-and-build theory of positive emotions. American psychologist, 56(3), 218. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066X.56.3.218
Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). The broaden–and–build theory of positive emotions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B: Biological Sciences, 359(1449), 1367–1377. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1512. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1512
Fredrickson, B. L., & Cohn, M. A. (2008). Positive emotions. Handbook of emotions, 3, 777-796.
Gao, S. S. (2017). A Survey on international students’ WTC in Chinese in and out of class (Master’s thesis, Dalian University of Foreign Languages). China National Knowledge Infrastructure. https://link.cnki.net/doi/10.26993/d.cnki.gslyc.2017.000002doi:10.26993/d.cnki.gslyc.2017.000002.
Gareis, E. (2012). Intercultural friendship: Effects of home and host region. Journal of International and Intercultural Communication, 5(4), 309-328. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17513057.2012.691525
Hao, F. F. (2015). A survey study on the willingness of international students coming to China to communicate in Chinese inside and outside the classroom. Seeking knowledge guide, (17), 50. doi:10.14161/j.cnki.qzdk.2015.17.037.
Hejazi, S. Y., & Sadoughi, M. (2023). How does teacher support contribute to learners’ grit? The role of learning enjoyment. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 17(3), 593-606. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17501229.2022.2098961
Jin, Y., & Zhang, L. J. (2021). The dimensions of foreign language classroom enjoyment and their effect on foreign language achievement. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism. 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2018.1526253. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2018.1526253
Hayes, A. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. Guilford Press.
Joe, H.-K., Hiver, P., & Al-Hoorie, A. H. (2017). Classroom social climate, self-determined motivation, willingness to communicate, and achievement: A study of structural relationships in instructed second language settings. Learning and Individual Differences, 53, 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.11.005. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2016.11.005
Khajavy, G. H., MacIntyre, P. D., & Barabadi, E. (2018). Role of the emotions and classroom environment in willingness to communicate: Applying doubly latent multilevel analysis in second language acquisition research. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 40(3), 605–624. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263117000304. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263117000304
Kim, Y. Y. (2017). Cross-cultural adaptation. In Oxford research encyclopedia of communication. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.21 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228613.013.21
Krashen, S. (1982). Principles and practice in second language acquisition (1th ed). University of Southern California.
Kruk, M. (2022). Dynamicity of perceived willingness to communicate, motivation, boredom and anxiety in second life: The case of two advanced learners of English. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 35(1-2), 190-216. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2019.1677722
Kun, Y., Senom, F., & Peng, C. F. (2020). Relationship between willingness to communicate in English and classroom environment. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(9A), 41–50. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.082006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.082006
Lai, J. (2022). The impact of willingness to communicate in Chinese on the cross-ciltural psychological adaptation of international students in China (Master’s thesis, Lanzhou Jiaotong University). China National Knowledge Infrastructure. DOI:10.27205/d.cnki.gltec.2022.000351.
Lee, J. S. (2022). The role of grit and classroom enjoyment in EFL learners’ willingness to communicate. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 43(5), 452–468. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2020.1746319. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2020.1746319
Lee, J. S., & Drajati, N. A. (2019). Affective variables and informal digital learning of English: Keys to willingness to communicate in a second language. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.5177. DOI: https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.5177
Lee, J. S., & Hsieh, J. C. (2019). Affective variables and willingness to communicate of EFL learners in in-class, out-of-class, and digital contexts. System, 82, 63-73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.03.002
Lee, J. S., & Lee, K. (2020). Affective factors, virtual intercultural experiences, and L2 willingness to communicate in in-class, out-of-class, and digital settings. Language Teaching Research, 24(6), 813–833. https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168819831408. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168819831408
Lee, J. S., Xie, Q., & Lee, K. (2021). Informal digital learning of English and L2 willingness to communicate: Roles of emotions, gender, and educational stage. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2021.1918699. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2021.1918699
Lee, J. S., Yeung, N. M., & Osburn, M. B. (2024). Foreign language enjoyment as a mediator between informal digital learning of English and willingness to communicate: A sample of Hong Kong EFL secondary students. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 45(9), 3613-3631. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2022.2112587 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2022.2112587
Lee, J. Y. (2011). English learning styles of students from east Asian countries: A focus on reading strategies. International Education Studies, 4(2), 75-81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v4n2p75
Li, C., Dewaele, J.-M., Pawlak, M., & Kruk, M. (2022). Classroom environment and willingness to communicate in English: The mediating role of emotions experienced by university students in China. Language Teaching Research, 136216882211116. https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688221111623. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/13621688221111623
Li, C., Jiang, G., & Dewaele, J. M. (2018). Understanding Chinese high school students’ foreign language enjoyment: validation of the Chinese version of the foreign language enjoyment scale. System, 76, 183-196. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.06.004
Li, J. Y. (2019). Chinese use outside the classroom by international students in China (Master’s thesis, Xiamen University). China National Knowledge Infrastructure.https://kns.cnki.net/
Li, L. L. (2018). Study on willingness to communicate in Chinese of international students in China (Master’s thesis, Jiangxi Normal University). China National Knowledge Infrastructure. https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2
Li, Y. (2022). A study on the WTC of international students in and out of class in Chinese in the context of covid-19 epidemic (Master’s thesis, Hebei University). China National Knowledge Infrastructure. https://link.cnki.net/doi/10.27103/d.cnki.ghebu.2022.002004doi:10.27103/d.cnki.ghebu.2022.002004.
Li, Z., & Li, B. (2022). Individual differences and willingness to communicate in second language: The role of student age, gender and socioeconomic status. Language Teaching Research Quarterly, 30, 18-31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32038/ltrq.2022.30.02
Liu, J. Y. (2023). A survey on international students’ Chinese learning enjoyment in Beijing colleges and universities (Master’s thesis, Beijing Foreign Studies University). China National Knowledge Infrastructure. https://link.cnki.net/doi/10.26962/d.cnki.gbjwu.2023.000812doi:10.26962/d.cnki.gbjwu.2023.000812.
Lv, X., Ren, W., & Li, L. (2021). Pragmatic competence and willingness to communicate among L2 learners of Chinese. Frontiers in Psychology, 12, 1-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.797419
Ma, B. (2020). A study on the willingness to communicate among international students after Chinese class (Master’s thesis, Dalian University of Foreign Languages). China National Knowledge Infrastructure. https://link.cnki.net/doi/10.26993/d.cnki.gslyc.2020.000359doi:10.26993/d.cnki.gslyc.2020.000359.
MacIntyre, P. D., Babin, P. A., & Clément, R. (1999). Willingness to communicate: Antecedents & consequences. Communication Quarterly, 47(2), 215-229. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01463379909370135
MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K. A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to communicate in a L2: A situational model of L2 confidence and affiliation. The Modern Language Journal, 82(4), 545–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1998.tb05543. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1998.tb05543.x
MacIntyre, P. D., & Doucette, J. (2010). Willingness to communicate and action control. System, 38(2), 161–171. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2009.12.013. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2009.12.013
MacIntyre, P. D., & Gregersen, T. (2012). Affect: The role of language anxiety and other emotions in language learning. In S. Mercer, S. Ryan, & M. Williams (Eds.), Psychology for language learning: Insights from research, theory and practice (pp. 103–118). Palgrave Macmillan. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137032829_8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137032829_8
Mohammad Hosseini, H., Fathi, J., Derakhshesh, A., & Mehraein, S. (2022). A model of classroom social climate, foreign language enjoyment, and student engagement among English as a foreign language learners. Frontiers in Psychology, 13, 933842. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.933842. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.933842
Mulyono, H., & Saskia, R. (2020). Dataset on the effects of self-confidence, motivation and anxiety on Indonesian students’ willingness to communicate in face-to-face and digital settings. Data in Brief, 31, 105774. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2020.105774. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dib.2020.105774
Munezane, Y. (2021). A new model of intercultural communicative competence: Bridging language classrooms and intercultural communicative contexts. Studies in Higher Education, 46(8), 1664–1681. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1698537. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1698537
Ou, Y. J. (2023). The effects of one-to-one teacher‒student interaction on students' anxiety, enjoyment, and willingness to communicate (Master’s thesis, Shanghai International Studies University). China National Knowledge Infrastructure. https://link.cnki.net/doi/10.27316/d.cnki.gswyu.2023.000618doi:10.27316/d.cnki.gswyu.2023.000618.
Peng, J.-E. (2019). The roles of multimodal pedagogic effects and classroom environment in willingness to communicate in English. System, 82, 161–173. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.04.006. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.04.006
Prior, M. T. (2019). Elephants in the room: An “affective turn,” or just feeling our way? The modern language journal, 103(2), 516–527. https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12573. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/modl.12573
Sadoughi, M., & Hejazi, S. Y. (2023). Teacher support, growth language mindset, and academic engagement: The mediating role of L2 grit. Studies in Educational Evaluation, 77, 101251. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.stueduc.2023.101251
Singh, J. K. N., & Jack, G. (2022). The role of language and culture in postgraduate international students’ academic adjustment and academic success: Qualitative insights from Malaysia. Journal of International Students, 12(2). DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v12i2.2351
Tajfel, H., & Turner, J. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In J. A. Williams & S. Worchel (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–47). Wadsworth.
Waluyo, B., & Bakoko, R. (2022). Effects of affective variables and willingness to communicate on students’ English-speaking performance in Thailand. Studies in English Language and Education, 9(1), 45–61. https://doi.org/10.24815/siele.v9i1.21090. DOI: https://doi.org/10.24815/siele.v9i1.21090
Wang, H., Peng, A., & Patterson, M. M. (2021). The roles of class social climate, language mindset, and emotions in predicting willingness to communicate in a foreign language. System, 99, 102529. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102529. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102529
Wei, H., Gao, K., & Wang, W. (2019). Understanding the relationship between grit and foreign language performance among middle school students: The roles of foreign language enjoyment and classroom environment. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1508. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01508. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01508
White, C. J. (2018). The emotional turn in applied linguistics and TESOL: Significance, challenges and prospects. Emotions in second language teaching: Theory, research and teacher education, 19-34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-75438-3_2
Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a second language: The Japanese EFL context. The Modern Language Journal, 86(1), 54–66. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4781.00136. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4781.00136
Yu, S. (2012). An examination of extracurricular Chinese language use by international students in China (Master’s thesis, Fudan University). China National Knowledge Infrastructure. https://kns.cnki.net/kcms2/
Yu, X. R. (2013). Study on the WTC in Chinese of foreign students and the impact factors (Doctoral dissertation, Nanjing University). China National Knowledge Infrastructure. https://kns.cnki.net/
Zang, F., Tian, M., Fan, J., & Sun, Y. (2022). Influences of online learning environment on international students’ intrinsic motivation and engagement in the Chinese learning. Journal of International Students, 12(S1), 61-82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v12iS1.4608
Zhang, H. (2021). Survey analysis and promotion of international students’ WTC in Chinese: The case of international students at Tianjin Foreign Studies University. Imago Cultural Creations, (48),116-117. doi:10.20024/j.cnki.cn42-1911/i.2021.48.049.
Zhang, J., Beckmann, N., & Beckmann, J. F. (2018). To talk or not to talk: A review of situational antecedents of willingness to communicate in the second language classroom. System, 72, 226–239. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.01.003. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2018.01.003
Zheng, J. (2009). An investigation of the factors influencing international students’ willingness to communicate in Chinese outside the classroom. Language Teaching and Research, 6, 56-61.
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
Categories
License
Copyright (c) 2025 Journal of International Students
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.
Copyright (c) [year] [author]
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
This license permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited. https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
